Theories of niche are primarily designed to
analyze interactions between different species; but anthropologists
are interested primarily in niche differences within a single
species (Homo sapiens)
Because of cultural flexibility (and technology),
humans are able to occupy extremely wide range of environments, and
to adopt extremely wide range of niches Furthermore, specific human
groups can become highly specialized in ways of utilizing env.
(i.e., niche), and use the same env. in different ways, either
sequentially, via cultural change/evolution, or
simultaneously.
This has led many ecological anthropologists to
argue that each human population or culture has its own distinctive
niche However, different cultures are not the same as different
species, since they can
1)
interbreed,
2)
borrow traits, or even
3)
merge into single population
These possibilities make it tricky to apply
ecological niche theory to analysis of interaction between diff.
human populations/cultures. However, if we keep in mind that
with humans we are talking about ecological populations and
not necessarily reproductively isolated ones, niche theory can be
useful for analyzing processes of diversification, competition, and
cooperation among human societies In particular, it can be a
useful tool for analyzing cultural/ethnic diversity
Frederick Barth's classic analysis of complex
ethnic interaction in Northern Pakistan is good illustration of how
niche theory can illuminate ethnic diversity.
Barth found the following three distinct ethnic
groups living in river valleys and surrounding mountains. of Swat,
N. Pakistan.
1) Kohistanis
= seasonal agriculture + herding; oldest inhabitants
2) Pathans =
sedentary agriculturalists who entered area 1000-1600 AD
3) Gujars =
nomadic herders;who entered in last 400 yrs
The environment is very mountainous with 18,000
ft high peaks dissected by steep gorges in higher areas, broader
alluvial valleys in lower areas. Clearly the distribution of
these 3 groups and their relations to each other cannot be
described in terms of environments per se, nor can they be reduced
to military/political strength (since the Pathan are clearly
superior, but yet do not displace the Kohistani in the upland
areas, etc.)
Complex patterns of ethnic distribution and
interaction thus can be accounted for in terms of niche theory --
in particular, as results of
a) competitive exclusion; and
b) niche divergence to reduce overlap ®coexistence
Overall, the Swat example demonstrates:
1) complexity
of human niche specialization
2) ability
for different cultures to co-exist via niche partitioning, as if
they were different "species"
3)
non-compliance with the theory of environmental determinism because
two or more societies can inhabit same env. (at same time or
sequentially) via differences in their niche(specialized
ways of utilizing environment to make living)
In recent years, ecological anthropologists and
others have become very interested in the degree to which cultural
diversity might interact with biological diversity, each
facilitating the other. Two important questions are:-
1) Are biodiversity & cultural diversity
correlated?
2) If so, what might account for this
correlation?
Are Biodiversity & Cultural Diversity Correlated?
Various recent studies examine relation between
cultural & biological diversity. Most of these studies
use language diversity as a proxy for cultural diversity (e.g., the
more languages native to a different area, the higher the diversity
score). It is commonplace to find some positive
relationships: for example, both are highest in
tropical/subtropical areas, and both are highest along
coastlines
Unfortunately, the measures and scales are often
crude, with the most common pattern being to
a) measure biodiversity by species richness (# of
species of some type in an area, e.g., mammals),
b) measure cultural diversity by language
richness (number of languages in an area), and c) tabulate both
kinds of diversity at the country scale.
A slightly more sophisticated version is to focus
on endemic species and languages (meaning those only found in the
given area). A handful of studies measure diversity on a continuous
scale (e.g., per unit area) rather than at national or regional
scales. Thus, the rigorous measurement of biodiversity &
cultural diversity correlation is in its infancy; unfortunately,
the objects of study are going extinct at an alarming rate.
Why are Biological & Cultural Diversity Correlated?
Although the empirical evidence indicates that
biodiversity & cultural diversity (or at least linguistic
diversity) are correlated in their geographical abundances, this in
itself doesn't tell us why this correlation occurs
Whatever the actual causal processes, there must
logically fall into one or more of the following 3
relationships:
(1) Cultural diversity drives increased
biodiversity
(2) Biodiversity drives increased cultural
diversity
(3) Some third factor (or factors) co- determines
both cultural and biological diversity
All 3 possibilities have some plausible
candidates, and these are not mutually exclusive (each could
predominate in particular cases)
1) Does cultural diversity enhance
biodiversity?
The first hypothesis focuses on small-scale
societies (locally adapted, therefore high cultural diversity per
unit area)
Proposed mechanisms:
(a) Intentionally conserve biodiversity (for
livelihood or for religious reasons)
(b) Create habitat mosaics & moderate
disturbance regimes (burning, swidden)
(c) Low environmental impact due to low
population densities & high mobility (foraging & swidden
agriculture)
Evidence for (a) is mixed, while (b) and (c) are
well supported
2. Does biodiversity enhance cultural
diversity?
The main idea is that high biodiversity provides
more niches for human populations, allowing higher cultural
diversification
Evidence for this is mixed at best:
Some areas of low biodiversity have high cultural
diversity (e.g., Niger Delta), while other areas of high
biological have low cultural diversity (e.g., deserts)
Biodiversity has to be “right kind”
(relevant to human subsistence) to favor niche diversity (ie people
don’t eat trees…)
3. Does some third factor enhance both biodiversity and cultural
diversity?
There are a number of candidate “third
factors”:
(a) A warmer, wetter climate = a longer
growing season ; this allows evolution/coexistence of more plant
species, which in turn allows denser human populations, hence more
ethno-linguistic groups per unit area (= higher cultural
diversity)
(b) A warmer, wetter climate equates with more
parasites. The effect on biodiversity is as in (1), but in
turn the parasites favour local cultural & genetic adaptations,
and thus limit intrusion of empires & colonial
populations
(c) Geographic barriers to dispersal could affect
both plant/animal species & human groups.
(d) Expansion of large-scale social systems
(empires, colonial powers) reduces both biological & cultural
diversity.
This is arguably most important “third
factor”causing correlation between biodiversity &cultural
diversity, since such systems require surplus production, based on
intensive agriculture (difficult in tropical forests), high
population densities, and trade (hence increasing demand for
extracted resources. This of course raises the issue of the
increasingly strong impacts of governmental and economic expansion
("globalization" etc.) on areas of high cultural and biological
diversity in today's world.
References
Barth, Fredrik
(1956) Ecologic relationships of ethnic groups in Swat, North
Pakistan. American Anthropologist 58:1079-
89.
Harmon, David
(1996) Losing species, losing languages: Connections between
biological and linguistic diversity. Southwest J. of
Linguistics15:89- 108.
Maffi, Luisa,
ed. (2001) Language, knowledge, and the environment: The
interdependence of biological and cultural diversity.
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press.
Maffi, Luisa
(2005) Linguistic, cultural, and biological diversity. Annual
Review of Anthropology 29:599- 617.
Moore, Joslin
L., et al. (2002) The distribution of biological and cultural
diversity in Africa. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,
B269(1501):1645-1653.
Nettle, Daniel
(1998) Explaining global patterns of linguistic diversity. J. of
Anthropological Archaeology17:354-74.
Smith, Eric
Alden (2001) On the coevolution of cultural, linguistic, and
biological diversity. In Language, knowledge, and the
environment: The interdependence of biological and cultural
diversity, ed. Luisa Maffi, pp. 95-117. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
Sutherland,
William J. (2003) Parallel extinction risk and global distribution
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279.
Wilcox, Bruce
A. and Kristin N. Duin (1995) Indigenous cultural and biological
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